THE AFRICAN SLAVE TRADE

The Atlantic slave trade, also known as the transatlantic slave trade, was the trade of African people supplied to the colonies of the "New World" that occurred in and around the Atlantic Ocean. It lasted from the 16th century to the 19th century. Most slaves were shipped from West Africa and Central Africa and taken to the New World (primarily Brazil^[1]). Generally slaves were obtained through coastal trading with Africans, though some were captured by European slave traders through raids and kidnapping.^[2][3] Most contemporary historians estimate that between 9.4 and 12 million^[4][5] Africans arrived in the New World,^[6][7] although the number of people taken from their homestead is considerably higher.^[8][9] The slave-trade is sometimes called the Maafa by African and African-American scholars, meaning "holocaust" or "great disaster" in Swahili. The slaves were one element of a three-part economic cycle—the Triangular Trade and its Middle Passage—which ultimately involved four continents, four centuries and millions of people.

Contents [hide] 1 Beginnings and the Atlantic systems 2 Triangular trade 3 Labor and slavery 4 African slave market 4.1 African versus European slavery 4.2 Slave Market Regions and Participation 4.3 African kingdoms of the Era 4.3.1 Ethnic groups 5 Human toll 5.1 African conflicts 5.2 Port factories 5.3 Atlantic shipment 5.4 Seasoning camps 6 European competition 7 Slavery and Christianity 8 New World destinations 9 Economics of slavery 10 Effects 10.1 Effect on the economy of Africa 10.2 Effects on Europe’s Economy 10.3 Demographics 10.4 Legacy of racism 11 End of the Atlantic slave trade 12 Apologies 13 See also 14 References 15 Further reading 16 External links

[edit] Beginnings and the Atlantic systems

See also: History of slavery, African slave trade, and European colonization of the Americas

Slavery was practiced in Africa before the beginning of the Atlantic slave trade.^[10] The African slave trade provided a large number of slaves to Europeans and their African agents.^[11][12]

There are two main eras of the Atlantic system.

The First Atlantic system was the trade of African slaves to mostly South American colonies of the Portuguese and Spanish empires; it accounted for only slightly more than 3% of all Atlantic slave trade. It started (on a significant scale) in about 1502^[13] and lasted until 1580, when Portugal was temporarily united with Spain. While the Portuguese traded slaves themselves, the Spanish empire relied on the asiento system, awarding merchants (mostly from other countries) the license to trade slaves to their colonies. During the first Atlantic system most of these traders were Portuguese, giving them a near-monopoly during the era, although some Dutch, English, Spanish and French traders also participated in the slave trade.^[14] After the union, Portugal stayed formally autonomous, but was weakened, with its colonial empire being attacked by the Dutch and English.

The Second Atlantic system was the trade of African slaves by mostly English, Brazilian, French and Dutch traders. The main destinations of this phase were the Caribbean colonies, Brazil and North America, as a number of European countries built up economically slave-dependent colonial empires in the New World. Amongst the pioneers of this system were Francis Drake and John Hawkins.

Only slightly more than 3 percent of the slaves exported were traded between 1450 and 1600, 16% in the 17th century. More than half of them were exported in the 18th century, the remaining 28.5% in the 19th century.^[15]

[edit] Triangular trade

Main article: Triangular Trade

European colonists initially practiced systems of both bonded labor and Indian slavery, enslaving many of the natives of the New World. For a variety of reasons, Africans replaced Indians as the main population of slaves in the Americas. In some cases, such as on some of the Caribbean Islands, warfare and diseases such as smallpox eliminated the natives completely. In other cases, such as in South Carolina, Virginia, and New England, the need for alliances with native tribes coupled with the availability of African slaves at affordable prices (beginning in the early 18th century for these colonies) resulted in a shift away from Indian slavery.

"The Slave Trade" by Auguste Francois Biard, 1840

A burial ground in Campeche, Mexico, suggests slaves had been brought there not long after Hernán Cortés completed the subjugation of Aztec and Mayan Mexico. The graveyard had been in use from about 1550 to the late 1600s ^[16].

The first side of the triangle was the export of goods from Europe to Africa. A number of African kings and merchants took part in the trading of slaves from 1440 to about 1900. For each captive, the African rulers would receive a variety of goods from Europe. The second leg of the triangle exported enslaved Africans across the Atlantic Ocean to South America, the Caribbean Islands, and North America. The third and final part of the triangle was the return of goods to Europe from the Americas. The goods were the products of slave-labor plantations and included cotton, sugar, tobacco, molasses and rum.

However, Brazil (the main importer of slaves) manufactured these goods in South America and directly traded with African ports, thus not taking part in a triangular trade.

[edit] Labor and slavery

Part of a series on Slavery
Period and context
History · Antiquity Religious views: Biblical · Christian · Islamic · Jewish Slave trades: Atlantic · African · Arab · Asian Human trafficking · Sexual slavery · Abolitionism · Servitude
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An antislavery medallion of the early 19th century.

Shortage of labor was one of the issues the Atlantic Slave Trade was made to deal with. Native peoples were the first used by Europeans as slaves until a large number died from overwork and Old World diseases.^[17] Later, African slaves were available in quantity at affordable prices. Other incentives, such as indentured servitude also failed to provide a sufficient workforce.

Many crops could not be sold for profit or even grown in Europe. It was also cheaper to import many crops and goods from the New World than from regions in Europe. Huge amounts of labor were needed for the plantations in the intensive growing, harvesting and processing of these prized tropical crops. Western Africa (part of which became known as 'the Slave Coast') and later Central Africa became the new source for slaves to meet the demand for labor.

The basic reason for the constant shortage of labor was that, with large amounts of cheap land available and lots of landowners searching for workers, free European immigrants were able to become landowners themselves after a relatively short time, thus increasing the need for workers.^[18]

[edit] African slave market

The Atlantic slave trade was not the only slave trade taking a toll on Africa, although it was one of the largest in volume and intensity. As Elikia M’bokolo wrote in Le Monde diplomatique: "The African continent was bled of its human resources via all possible routes. Across the Sahara, through the Red Sea, from the Indian Ocean ports and across the Atlantic. At least ten centuries of slavery for the benefit of the Muslim countries (from the ninth to the nineteenth). ... Four million slaves exported via the Red Sea, another four million through the Swahili ports of the Indian Ocean, perhaps as many as nine million along the trans-Saharan caravan route, and eleven to twenty million (depending on the author) across the Atlantic Ocean."^[19]

Europeans usually bought slaves who were captured in tribal wars between African kingdoms and chiefdoms, or from Africans who had made a business out of capturing other Africans and selling them. Europeans provided a large new market for an already-existing trade, and while an African held in slavery in his own region of Africa might escape or be traded back to his own people, a person shipped away was sure never to return. People living around the Niger River were transported from these markets to the coast and sold at European trading ports in exchange for muskets and manufactured goods such as cloth or alcohol.

The Atlantic slave trade peaked in the late 18th century, when the largest number of slaves were captured on raiding expeditions into the interior of West Africa. These expeditions were typically carried out by coastal African kingdoms, such as the Oyo empire (Yoruba) and the kingdom of Dahomey.^[20]

Europeans rarely entered the interior of Africa, due to fear of disease and moreover fierce African resistance.^[21] The slaves would be brought to coastal outposts where they would be traded for goods. Enslavement became a major by-product of war in Africa as nation states expanded through military conflicts in many cases through deliberate sponsorship of benefiting Western European nations. During such periods of rapid state formation or expansion (Asante or Dahomey being good examples), slavery formed an important element of political life which the Europeans exploited: As Queen Sara's plea to the Portuguese courts revealed, the system became "sell to the Europeans or be sold to the Europeans". In Africa, convicted criminals could be punished by enslavement and with European demands for slaves, this punishment became more prevalent. Since most of these nations did not have a prison system, convicts were often sold or used in the scattered local domestic slave market.^[22]

The majority of European conquests occurred toward the end or after the transatlantic slave trade. One exception to this is the conquest of Ndongo in current day Angola where Ndongo's slaves, warriors, free citizens and even nobility were taken into slavery by the Portuguese conquerors after the fall of the state.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] African versus European slavery

Further information: African slave trade

Slavery in African cultures was generally indentured servitude: slaves were not chattel, nor enslaved for life.^{[citation needed]} African slaves were paid wages and were able to accumulate property.^{[citation needed]} They often bought their own freedom and could then achieve social promotion — just as freedmen in ancient Rome — some even rose to the status of rulers (e.g. Jaja of Opobo and Sunni Ali Ber). Similar arguments were used by Western slave owners during the time of abolitionism, for example by John Wedderburn in Wedderburn v. Knight, the case that ended legal recognition of slavery in Scotland in 1776. Regardless of the legal options open to slave owners, rational cost-earning calculation and/or voluntary adoption of moral restraints often tended to mitigate.

[edit] Slave Market Regions and Participation

There were eight principal areas used by Europeans to buy and ship slaves to the Western Hemisphere. The number of slaves sold to the new world varied throughout the slave trade. As for the distribution of slaves from regions of activity, certain areas produced far more slaves than others. Between 1650 and 1900, 10.24 million African slaves arrived in the Americas from the following regions in the following proportions:^[23]

• Senegambia (Senegal and The Gambia): 4.8%
• Upper Guinea (Guinea-Bissau, Guinea and Sierra Leone): 4.1%
• Windward Coast (Liberia and Cote d' Ivoire): 1.8%
• Gold Coast (Ghana): 10.4%
• Bight of Benin (Togo, Benin and Nigeria west of the Niger Delta): 20.2%
• Bight of Biafra (Nigeria east of the Niger Delta, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea and Gabon): 14.6%
• West Central Africa (Republic of Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo and Angola): 39.4%
• Southeastern Africa (Mozambique and Madagascar): 4.7%

[edit] African kingdoms of the Era

There were over 173 city-states and kingdoms in the African regions affected by the slave trade between 1502 and 1853, when Brazil became the last Atlantic import nation to outlaw the slave trade. Of those 173, no fewer than 68 could be deemed nation states with political and military infrastructures that enabled them to dominate their neighbors. Nearly every present-day nation had a pre-colonial predecessor, sometimes an African Empire with which European traders had to barter and eventually battle. Below are 29 nation states by country that actively or passively participated in the Atlantic Slave Trade:

• Senegal: Denanke Kingdom, Kingdom of Fouta Tooro, Jolof Empire, Kingdom of Khasso and Kingdom of Saalum
• Guinea-Bissau: Kaabu Empire
• Guinea: Kingdom of Fouta Djallon
• Sierra Leone: Koya Temne
• Cote d'Ivoire: Kong Empire and Gyaaman Kingdom
• Ghana: Asante Confederacy and Mankessim Kingdom
• Benin: Kingdom of Dahomey
• Nigeria: Oyo Empire, Benin Empire and Aro Confederacy
• Cameroon: Bamun and Mandara Kingdom
• Gabon: Kingdom of Orungu
• Republic of Congo: Kingdom of Loango and Kingdom of Tio
• Angola: Kingdom of Kongo, Kingdom of Ndongo and Matamba

[edit] Ethnic groups

The different ethnic groups brought to the Americas closely corresponds to the regions of heaviest activity in the slave trade. Over 45 distinct ethnic groups were taken to the Americas during the trade. Of the 45, the ten most prominent according to slave documentation of the era are listed below.^[24]

1. The Gbe speakers of Togo, Ghana and Benin (Adja, Mina, Ewe, Fon)
2. The Akan of Ghana and Cote d'Ivoire
3. The Mbundu of Angola (includes Ovimbundu)
4. The BaKongo of the Democratic Republic of Congo and Angola
5. The Igbo of Nigeria
6. The Yoruba of Nigeria
7. The Mandé speakers of Upper Guinea
8. The Wolof of Senegal
9. The Chamba of Cameroon
10. The Makua of Mozambique

[edit] Human toll

The transatlantic slave trade resulted in a vast and as yet still unknown loss of life for African captives both in and outside of America. Approximately 8 million Africans were killed during their storage, shipment and initial landing in the New World.^[25] The amount of life lost in the actual procurement of slaves remains a mystery but may equal or exceed the amount actually enslaved.^[26] If such a figure is to be believed, the total number of deaths would be between 16 and 20 million.^{[citation needed]}

The savage nature of the trade, in which most of the slaves were prisoners from African wars, led to the destruction of individuals and cultures. The following figures do not include deaths of African slaves as a result of their actual labor, slave revolts or diseases they caught while living among New World populations.

A database compiled in the late 1990s put the figure for the Transatlantic Slave Trade at more than 11 million people. Estimates as high as 50 million have been floated.^{[citation needed]} For a long time an accepted figure was 15 million, although this has in recent years been revised down. Most historians now agree that at least 12 million slaves left the continent between the fifteenth and nineteenth century, but 10 to 20% died on board ships. Thus a figure of 11 million slaves transported to the Americas is the nearest demonstrable figure historians can produce.^[27]

[edit] African conflicts

The Portuguese in awe of the majesty of the Manikongo. The Portuguese were initially impressed by the Kingdom of Kongo. Depopulation from slave trading would eventually lead to the disintegration of the once powerful Kongo^{[citation needed]}

According to David Stannard's American Holocaust, 50% of African deaths occurred in Africa as a result of wars between native kingdoms, which produced the majority of slaves.^[28] This includes not only those who died in battles, but also those who died as a result of forced marches from inland areas to slave ports on the various coasts.^[29] The practice of enslaving enemy combatants and their villages was widespread throughout Western and West Central Africa, although wars were rarely started to procure slaves. The slave trade was largely a by-product of tribal and state warfare as a way of removing potential dissidents after victory or financing future wars.^[30] However, some African groups proved particularly adept and brutal at the practice of enslaving such as Kaabu, Asanteman, Dahomey, the Aro Confederacy and the Imbangala war bands.^[31] By the end of this process, no less than 18.3 million people would be herded into "factories" to await shipment to the New World.^{[citation needed]}

Diagram of a slave ship from the Atlantic slave trade. From an Abstract of Evidence delivered before a select committee of the House of Commons in 1790 and 1791.

In letters written by the Manikongo, Nzinga Mbemba Affonso, to the King João III of Portugal, he writes that Portuguese merchandise flowing in is what is fueling the trade in Africans. He requests the King of Portugal to stop sending merchandise but should only send missionaries. In one of his letter he writes:

"Each day the traders are kidnapping our people - children of this country, sons of our nobles and vassals, even people of our own family. This corruption and depravity are so widespread that our land is entirely depopulated. We need in this kingdom only priests and schoolteachers, and no merchandise, unless it is wine and flour for Mass. It is our wish that this Kingdom not be a place for the trade or transport of slaves."

Many of our subjects eagerly lust after Portuguese merchandise that your subjects have brought into our domains. To satisfy this inordinate appetite, they seize many of our black free subjects.... They sell them. After having taken these prisoners [to the coast] secretly or at night..... As soon as the captives are in the hands of white men they are branded with a red-hot iron.^[32]

Before the arrival of the Portuguese, slavery had already existed in Kongo. Despite its establishment within his kingdom, Afonso believed that the slave trade should be subject to Kongo law. When he suspected the Portuguese of receiving illegally enslaved persons to sell, he wrote in to King João III in 1526 imploring him to put a stop to the practice.^[33]

The kings of Dahomey sold their war captives into transatlantic slavery, who otherwise would have been killed in a ceremony known as the Annual Customs. As one of West Africa's principal slave states, Dahomey became extremely unpopular with neighbouring peoples.^[34][35][36] Like the Bambara Empire to the east, the Khasso kingdoms depended heavily on the slave trade for their economy. A family's status was indicated by the number of slaves it owned, leading to wars for the sole purpose of taking more captives. This trade led the Khasso into increasing contact with the European settlements of Africa's west coast, particularly the French.^[37] Benin grew increasingly rich during the 16th and 17th centuries on the slave trade with Europe; slaves from enemy states of the interior were sold, and carried to the Americas in Dutch and Portuguese ships. The Bight of Benin's shore soon came to be known as the "Slave Coast".^[38]

King Gezo of Dahomey said in the 1840s:

The slave trade is the ruling principle of my people. It is the source and the glory of their wealth…the mother lulls the child to sleep with notes of triumph over an enemy reduced to slavery…^[39]

In 1807, the UK Parliament passed the Bill that abolished the trading of slaves. The King of Bonny (now in Nigeria) was horrified at the conclusion of the practice:

We think this trade must go on. That is the verdict of our oracle and the priests. They say that your country, however great, can never stop a trade ordained by God himself.^[40]

[edit] Port factories

After being marched to the coast for sale, slaves waited in large forts called factories. The amount of time in factories varied, but Milton Meltzer's Slavery: A World History states this process resulted in or around 4.5% of deaths during the transatlantic slave trade.^[25] In other words, over 820,000 people would have died in African ports such as Benguela, Elmina and Bonny reducing the number of those shipped to 17.5 million.^[25]

[edit] Atlantic shipment

After being captured and held in the factories, slaves entered the infamous Middle Passage. Meltzer's research puts this phase of the slave trade's overall mortality at 12.5%.^[25] Around 2.2 million Africans died during these voyages where they were packed into tight, unsanitary spaces on ships for months at a time. Measures were taken to stem the onboard mortality rate such as enforced "dancing" (as exercise) above deck and the practice of force-feeding slaves who tried to starve themselves.^[29] The conditions on board also resulted in the spread of fatal diseases. Other fatalities were the result of suicides by jumping over board by slaves who could no longer endure the conditions.^[29] Before the shipping of slaves was completely outlawed in 1853, 15.3 million "immigrants" had arrived in the Americas.

Raymond L. Cohn, an economics professor whose research has focused on economic history and international migration,^[41] has researched the mortality rates among Africans during the voyages of the Atlantic slave trade. He found that mortality rates decreased over the history of the slave trade, primarily because the length of time necessary for the voyage was declining. "In the eighteenth century many slave voyages took at least 2-1/2 months. In the nineteenth century, 2 months appears to have been the maximum length of the voyage, and many voyages were far shorter. Fewer slaves died in the Middle Passage over time mainly because the passage was shorter."^[42]

[edit] Seasoning camps

Meltzer also states that 33% of Africans would have died in the first year at seasoning camps found throughout the Caribbean.^[25] Many slaves shipped directly to North America bypassed this process; however most slaves (destined for island or South American plantations) were likely to be put through this ordeal. The slaves were tortured for the purpose of "breaking" them (like the practice of breaking horses) and conditioning them to their new lot in life. Jamaica held one of the most notorious of these camps. All in all, 5 million Africans died in these camps reducing the final number of Africans to about 10 million.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] European competition

Reproduction of a handbill advertising a slave auction in Charleston, South Carolina, in 1769.

The trade of enslaved Africans in the Atlantic has its origins in the explorations of Portuguese mariners down the coast of West Africa in the 15th century. Before that, contact with African slave markets was made to ransom Portuguese that had been captured by the intense North African Barbary pirate attacks to the Portuguese ships and coastal villages, frequently leaving them depopulated.^[43] The first Europeans to use African slaves in the New World were the Spaniards who sought auxiliaries for their conquest expeditions and laborers on islands such as Cuba and Hispaniola, where the alarming decline in the native population had spurred the first royal laws protecting the native population (Laws of Burgos, 1512-1513). The first African slaves arrived in Hispaniola in 1501 ^[44]. After Portugal had succeeded in establishing sugar plantations (engenhos) in northern Brazil ca. 1545, Portuguese merchants on the West African coast began to supply enslaved Africans to the sugar planters there. While at first these planters relied almost exclusively on the native Tupani for slave labor, a titanic shift toward Africans took place after 1570 following a series of epidemics which decimated the already destabilized Tupani communities. By 1630, Africans had replaced the Tupani as the largest contingent of labor on Brazilian sugar plantations, heralding equally the final collapse of the European medieval household tradition of slavery, the rise of Brazil as the largest single destination for enslaved Africans and sugar as the reason that roughly 84% of these Africans were shipped to the New World.

Merchants from various European nations were later involved in the Atlantic Slave trade: Portugal, Spain, France, England, Scotland, Brandenburg-Prussia, Denmark, Holland. As Britain rose in naval power and settled continental North America and some islands of the West Indies, they became the leading slave traders. At one stage the trade was the monopoly of the Royal Africa Company, operating out of London, but following the loss of the company's monopoly in 1689, Bristol and Liverpool merchants became increasingly involved in the trade ^[45]. By the late 17th century, one out of every four ships that left Liverpool harbour was a slave trading ship.^[46] Other British cities also profited from the slave trade. Birmingham, the largest gun producing town in Britain at the time, supplied guns to be traded for slaves. 75% of all sugar produced in the plantations came to London to supply the highly lucrative coffee houses there.^[47]

[edit] Slavery and Christianity

Main article: Christianity and Slavery

In general, early Christians, such as Paul, St. Augustine, or St. Thomas Aquinas did not oppose slavery. Pope Nicholas V even encouraged enslaving non-Christian Africans in his Papal Bull Romanus Pontifex of 1454. Since then other popes stated that slavery was against Christian teachings, as is now generally held. Even earlier, in 1435, Pope Eugene IV condemned the enslavement of the inhabitants of the Canary Islands. In 1537, Pope Paul III forbade the enslavement of the Indians and other indigenous peoples with the papal bull Sublimus Dei. A list of papal statements against slavery (and also claims that the popes nonetheless owned and bought slaves) is found in the discussion Christianity and Slavery.

Most Christian sects found some way to soothe the consciences of their slave-owning members. One notable exception was the Society of Friends (Quakers), who advocated the abolition of slavery from earliest times.

[edit] New World destinations

The first slaves to arrive as part of a labor force appeared in 1502 on the island of Hispaniola (now Haiti and the Dominican Republic). Cuba received its first four slaves in 1513. Slave exports to Honduras and Guatemala started in 1526. The first African slaves to reach what would become the US arrived in January of 1526 as part of a Spanish attempt at colonizing South Carolina near Jamestown. By November the 300 Spanish colonist were reduced to a mere 100 accompanied by 70 of their original 100 slaves. The slaves revolted and joined a nearby native population while the Spanish abandoned the colony altogether. Colombia received its first slaves in 1533. El Salvador, Costa Rica and Florida began their stint in the slave trade in 1541, 1563 and 1581 respectively.

The 17th century saw an increase in shipments with slaves arriving in the English colony of Jamestown, Virginia in 1619. Irish immigrants brought slaves to Montserrat in 1651. And in 1655, slaves arrive in Belize.

Distribution of slaves (1450-1900) ^[48]

Destination	Percentage
Brazil	35.4%
Spanish Empire	22.1%
British West Indies	17.7%
French West Indies	14.1%
British North America and future United States	4.4%
Dutch West Indies	4.4%
Danish West Indies	0.2%

[edit] Economics of slavery

The plantation economies of the New World were built on slave labor. Seventy percent of the slaves brought to the new world were used to produce sugar, the most labor-intensive crop. The rest were employed harvesting coffee, cotton, and tobacco, and in some cases in mining. The West Indian colonies of the European powers were some of their most important possessions, so they went to extremes to protect and retain them. For example, at the end of the Seven Years' War in 1763, France agreed to cede the vast territory of New France to the victors in exchange for keeping the minute Antillean island of Guadeloupe.

Slave trade profits have been the object of many fantasies. Returns for the investors were not absurdly high (around 6% in France in the 18th century), but they were considerably higher than domestic alternatives (in the same century, around 5%). Risks — maritime and commercial — were important for individual voyages. Investors mitigated it by buying small shares of many ships at the same time. In that way, they were able to diversify a large part of the risk away. Between voyages, ship shares could be freely sold and bought. All these made the slave trade a very interesting investment.^[49]

By far the most successful West Indian colonies in 1800 belonged to the United Kingdom. After entering the sugar colony business late, British naval supremacy and control over key islands such as Jamaica, Trinidad, the Leeward Islands and Barbados and the territory of British Guiana gave it an important edge over all competitors; while many British did not make gains, a handful of individuals made small fortunes. This advantage was reinforced when France lost its most important colony, St. Dominigue (western Hispaniola, now Haiti), to a slave revolt in 1791^[50] and supported revolts against its rival Britain, after the 1793 French revolution in the name of liberty (but in fact opportunistic selectivity). Before 1791, British sugar had to be protected to compete against cheaper French sugar.

After 1791, the British islands produced the most sugar, and the British people quickly became the largest consumers. West Indian sugar became ubiquitous as an additive to Indian tea. Nevertheless, the profits of the slave trade and of West Indian plantations amounted to less than 5% of the British economy at the time of the Industrial Revolution in the latter half of the 1700s.^[51]

[edit] Effects

World population (in millions)^[52]

Year	1750	1800	1850	1900	1950	1999
World	791	978	1,262	1,650	2,521	5,978
Africa	106	107	111	133	221	767
Asia	502	635	809	947	1,402	3,634
Europe	163	203	276	408	547	729
Latin America and the Caribbean	16	24	38	74	167	511
Northern America	2	7	26	82	172	307
Oceania	2	2	2	6	13	30

World population (by percentage distribution)

Year	1750	1800	1850	1900	1950	1999
World	100	100	100	100	100	100
Africa	13.4	10.9	8.8	8.1	8.8	12.8
Asia	63.5	64.9	64.1	57.4	55.6	60.8
Europe	20.6	20.8	21.9	24.7	21.7	12.2
Latin America and the Caribbean	2.0	2.5	3.0	4.5	6.6	8.5
Northern America	0.3	0.7	2.1	5.0	6.8	5.1
Oceania	0.3	0.2	0.2	0.4	0.5	0.5

Historian Walter Rodney has argued that at the start of the slave trade in the 16th century, even though there was a technological gap between Europe and Africa, it was not very substantial. Both continents were using Iron Age technology. The major advantage that Europe had was in ship building. During the period of slavery the populations of Europe and the Americas grew exponentially while the population of Africa remained stagnant. Rodney contended that the profits from slavery were used to fund economic growth and technological advancement in Europe and the Americas. Based on earlier theories by Eric Williams, he asserted that the industrial revolution was at least in part funded by agricultural profits from the Americas. He cited examples such as the invention of the steam engine by James Watt, which was funded by plantation owners from the Caribbean^[53].

Other historians have attacked both Rodney's methodology and factual accuracy. Joseph C. Miller has argued that the social change and demographic stagnation (which he researched on the example of West Central Africa) was caused primarily by domestic factors. Joseph Inikori provided a new line of argument, estimating counterfactual demographic developments in case the Atlantic slave trade had not existed. Patrick Manning has shown that the slave trade did indeed have profound impact on African demographics and social institutions, but nevertheless criticized Inikori’s approach for not taking other factors (such as famine and drought) into account and thus being highly speculative.^[54]

[edit] Effect on the economy of Africa

Cowrie shells were used as money in the slave trade

No scholars dispute the harm done to the slaves themselves, but the effect of the trade on African societies is much debated due to the apparent influx of capital to Africans. Proponents of the slave trade, such as Archibald Dalzel, argued that African societies were robust and not much affected by the ongoing trade. In the 19th century, European abolitionists, most prominently Dr. David Livingstone, took the opposite view arguing that the fragile local economy and societies were being severely harmed by the ongoing trade. This view continued with scholars until the 1960s and 70s such as Basil Davidson, who conceded it might have had some benefits while still acknowledging its largely negative impact on Africa.^[55] Historian Walter Rodney estimates that by c.1770, the King of Dahomey was earning an estimated £250,000 per year by selling captive African soldiers and even his own people to the European slave-traders.

[edit] Effects on Europe’s Economy

Eric Williams has attempted to show the contribution of Africans on the basis of profits from the slave trade and slavery, and the employment of those profits to finance England’s industrialization process. He argues that the enslavement of Africans was an essential element to the Industrial Revolution, and that European wealth is a result of slavery. However, he argued that by the time of its abolition it had lost its profitability and it was in Britain's economic interest to ban it. Most modern scholars disagree with this view. Seymour Drescher and Robert Anstey have both presented evidence that the slave trade remained profitable until the end, and that reasons other than economics led to its cessation. Joseph Inikori has shown elsewhere that the British slave trade was more profitable than the critics of Williams would want us to believe. Nevertheless, the profits of the slave trade and of West Indian plantations amounted to less than 5% of the British economy at the time of the Industrial Revolution.^[56]

[edit] Demographics

The demographic effects of the slave trade are some of the most controversial and debated issues. More than 10 million people were removed from Africa via the slave trade, and what effect this had on Africa is an important question.

Walter Rodney argued that the export of so many people had been a demographic disaster and had left Africa permanently disadvantaged when compared to other parts of the world, and largely explains the continent's continued poverty.^[57] He presented numbers showing that Africa's population stagnated during this period, while that of Europe and Asia grew dramatically. According to Rodney, all other areas of the economy were disrupted by the slave trade as the top merchants abandoned traditional industries to pursue slaving, and the lower levels of the population were disrupted by the slaving itself.

Others have challenged this view. J. D. Fage compared the number effect on the continent as a whole. David Eltis has compared the numbers to the rate of emigration from Europe during this period. In the nineteenth century alone over 50 million people left Europe for the Americas, a far higher rate than were ever taken from Africa.^[58].

Other scholars accused Rodney of mischaracterizing the trade between Africans and Europeans. They argue that Africans, or more accurately African elites, deliberately let European traders join in an already large trade in slaves and were not patronized.^[59]

As Joseph E. Inikori argues, the history of the region shows that the effects were still quite deleterious. He argues that the African economic model of the period was very different from the European, and could not sustain such population losses. Population reductions in certain areas also led to widespread problems. Inikori also notes that after the suppression of the slave trade Africa's population almost immediately began to rapidly increase, even prior to the introduction of modern medicines.^[60] Shahadah also states that the trade was not only of demographic significance, in aggregate population losses but also in the profound changes to settlement patterns, exposure to epidemics, and reproductive and social development potential.^[61]

[edit] Legacy of racism

Maulana Karenga states that the effects of slavery were "the morally monstrous destruction of human possibility involved redefining African humanity to the world, poisoning past, present and future relations with others who only know us through this stereotyping and thus damaging the truly human relations among peoples." He states that it constituted the destruction of culture, language, religion and human possibility.^[62]

The Atlantic slave trade was without question a long-standing system which displaced many African people from their native lands, tribes, and families. The evidence of the populations of descendant Africans is most clear in the continents of North America and South America.

[edit] End of the Atlantic slave trade

Main article: Abolitionism

In Britain, Portugal and in some other parts of Europe, opposition developed against the slave trade. Led by the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers) and establishment Evangelicals such as William Wilberforce, the movement was joined by many and began to protest against the trade, but they were opposed by the owners of the colonial holdings. Denmark, which had been active in the slave trade, was the first country to ban the trade through legislation in 1792, which took effect in 1803. Britain banned the slave trade (but not slavery itself) in 1807, imposing stiff fines for any slave found aboard a British ship (see Slave Trade Act 1807). The Royal Navy, which then controlled the world's seas, moved to stop other nations from filling Britain's place in the slave trade and declared that slaving was equal to piracy and was punishable by death. The United States outlawed the importation of slaves on January 1, 1808, the earliest date permitted by the constitution for such a ban.

"Am I not a woman and a sister?"
An antislavery medallion from the late 18th century

On Sunday 28 October 1787, William Wilberforce wrote in his diary: “God Almighty has set before me two great objects, the suppression of the slave trade and the Reformation of society.” For the rest of his life, William Wilberforce dedicated his life as a Member of Parliament to opposing the slave trade and working for the abolition of slavery throughout the British Empire. On 22 February 1807, twenty years after he first began his crusade, and in the middle of Britain’s war with France, Wilberforce and his team’s labors were rewarded with victory. By an overwhelming 283 votes for to 16 against, the motion to abolish the slave trade was carried in the House of Commons.^[63]

After the British ended their own slave trade, they felt forced by economics to press other nations to do the same, or else the British colonies would become uncompetitive. With peace in Europe from 1815, and British supremacy at sea secured, the Navy turned its attention back to the challenge and established the West Coast of Africa Station, known as the ‘preventative squadron’, which for the next 50 years operated against the slavers. By the 1850s, around 25 vessels and 2,000 officers and men were on the station, supported by nearly 1,000 ‘Kroomen’, experienced fishermen recruited as sailors from what is now the coast of modern Liberia. Service on the West Africa Squadron was a thankless and overwhelming task, full of risk and posing a constant threat to the health of the crews involved. Contending with pestilential swamps and violent encounters, the mortality rate was 55 per 1,000 men, compared with 10 for fleets in the Mediterranean or in home waters.^[64] Between 1807 and 1860, the West Africa Squadron seized approximately 1,600 ships involved in the slave trade and freed 150,000 Africans who were aboard these vessels.^[65]. The last recorded slave ship to land on American soil was the Clotilde, which in 1859 illegally smuggled a number of Africans into the town of Mobile, Alabama.^[66] The Africans on board were sold as slaves, however slavery was abolished 5 years later following the end of the civil war. The last survivor of the voyage was Cudjoe Lewis who died in 1935.^[67]

Action was also taken against African leaders who refused to agree to British treaties to outlaw the trade, for example against ‘the usurping King of Lagos’, deposed in 1851. Anti-slavery treaties were signed with over 50 African rulers.^[68] The British campaign against the slave trade by other nations was an unprecedented foreign policy effort.

Although the slave trade had become illegal, slavery remained a reality in British colonies. Wilberforce himself was privately convinced that the institution of slavery should be entirely abolished, but understood that there was little political will for emancipation. In parliament, the Emancipation Bill gathered support and received its final commons reading on 26 July 1833. Slavery would be abolished, but the planters would be heavily compensated. Thank God, said William Wilberforce, that I have lived to witness a day in which England is willing to give twenty millions sterling for the Abolition of Slavery.

The last country to ban the Atlantic slave trade was Brazil in 1831. However, a vibrant illegal trade continued to ship large numbers of slaves to Brazil and also to Cuba until the 1860's, when British enforcement and further diplomacy finally ended the Atlantic trade. ^[69][70]

[edit] Apologies

In 1998, UNESCO designated August 23 as International Day for the Remembrance of the Slave Trade and its Abolition. Since that occurrence, a number of events surrounding the recognition of the effect of slavery on both the enslaved and enslavers have come to pass.

At the 2001 World Conference Against Racism in Durban South Africa, African nations demanded a clear apology for slavery from the former slave-trading countries. Some EU nations were ready to express an apology, but the opposition, mainly from the United Kingdom, Portugal Spain, Netherlands, and the United States blocked attempts to do so. A fear of monetary compensation was one of the reasons for the opposition^{[citation needed]}. Apologies on behalf of African nations, for their role in trading their countrymen into slavery, also remains an open issue.

On January 30, 2006, Jacques Chirac said that 10 May would henceforth be a national day of remembrance for the victims of slavery in France, marking the day in 2001 when France passed a law recognising slavery as a crime against humanity.^[71]

On November 27, 2006, Tony Blair made a partial apology for Britain's role in the African slavery trade. However African rights activists denounced it as "empty rhetoric" that failed to address the issue properly. They feel his apology stopped shy to prevent any legal retort.^[72] Mr Blair again apologized on March 14, 2007.^[73]

On February 24, 2007 the Virginia General Assembly passed House Joint Resolution Number 728^[74] acknowledging "with profound regret the involuntary servitude of Africans and the exploitation of Native Americans, and call for reconciliation among all Virginians." With the passing of that resolution, Virginia became the first of the 50 United States to acknowledge through the state's governing body their state's involvement in slavery. The passing of this resolution came on the heels of the 400th anniversary celebration of the city of Jamestown, Virginia, which was the first permanent English colony to survive in what would become the United States. Jamestown is also recognized as one of the first slave ports of the American colonies.

On May 31, 2007, Alabama Governor Bob Riley signed a resolution expressing "profound regret" for Alabama's role in slavery and apologizing for slavery's wrongs and lingering effects. Alabama is the fourth Southern state to pass a slavery apology, following votes by the legislatures in Maryland, Virginia and North Carolina.^[75]

On August 24, 2007, Mayor Ken Livingstone of London, England apologized publicly for England's role in colonial slave trade. "You can look across there to see the institutions that still have the benefit of the wealth they created from slavery," he said pointing towards the financial district. He claimed that London was still tainted by the horrors of slavery. Jesse Jackson praised Mayor Livingstone, and added that reparations should be made.^[76]

[edit] See also

• List of topics related to Black and African people
• Abolitionism
• African American history
• African Diaspora
• African slave trade
• Afro-Brazilians
• Afro-Latinos
• Arab slave trade
• Bandeirantes
• Christianity and slavery
• European colonization of the Americas
• History of slavery
• History of slavery in the United States
• Plantation economy
• Triangular trade

Insights Into Slavery

When Americans hear the term "slavery," often images of southern plantations come to mind. People tend to forget that the African slave trade was widespread. The African slave trade depleted the home continent's population and blended African cultures with others worldwide, after which, much of the original culture was lost.

Experts estimate that over four and a half centuries, about 25 million Africans were systematically enslaved. About half of those people were kidnapped from their West African homes, hauled across the Atlantic Ocean, and sold to European settlers throughout the Americas. In addition to the southern United States, slave destinations included ports and plantations in the Caribbean and Brazil. A similar slave trade, conducted by Arab and African traders over roughly the same period, captured about 12 million from the continent's east coast and shipped them to the Arab world.

Slavery is nothing new to humankind. Enslaving others in servitude has been part of human culture—at one place or another—for millennia. But, unlike others, this era of slavery was the most widespread and culturally devastating. Some experts argue that by removing what may have been half of the continent's population, the depletion resulted in the slower social and economic growth still affecting many African countries today.

So how did such large-scale trade using people as a commodity come about?

Between 800 and 1500 A.D., advances in ship design and navigation techniques fueled European exploration in and around Africa. Portuguese, Spanish, English, and Dutch mariners established regular trade routes. Africa's metals (especially gold), feathers, and ivory were highly desirable to buyers in Europe and Asia. During that time, some African rulers customarily kept and sold human slaves, who were also African. At some point, those local slaves became accepted as international commodities.

At the turn of the 19th century, public sentiment over slavery was dramatically shifting. In England, for example, the Parliament passed the Act for the Abolition of the Slave Trade in 1807. This law made it illegal to trade slaves from Africa to British colonies. The legislation also required British colonies and territories to keep tri-yearly registers of currently owned slaves, in order to curb illegal trade.

Recently, the online genealogy service, Ancestry.co.uk launched an archive providing details of nearly 100,000 slaves owned by British colonists in Barbados during the early 19th Century. They expect nearly 3 million to be added as more registries are digitized. For slave descendents, such information could provide a solid piece of their family tree's puzzle.

To learn more about the history of slavery, your lesson this week will focus on the Transatlantic Slave Trade. You will examine how various nations played a role in slave trading, and you will also get a glimpse of how slavery affected people were and how some were able to gain their freedom.

Routes & Traders

Begin your journey with Breaking the Silence: Learning about the Transatlantic Slave Trade. Take in an overview of the topic by using the image menu at the top of the page, starting with Africa before the Transatlantic Slave Trade. Read the brief summary, and then download the full briefing for this subject (a Word document) for a longer explanation. Print out to keep with your other notes, if possible.

(Note that the left-hand menu on each page leads to related third-party links, but not all links are current.)

Continue through the overview's section, to learn more about slavery's Participants and Profitability, Economics and Organization, and The Middle Passage.

Why was this system referred to as the "triangular trade"? About how many Africans died across the Middle Passage? What do you think it would have been like to live in a port town where slaves were herded off of ships? How would you have felt if you were the person being auctioned off?

Continue through the overview by getting a glimpse of Life on the Plantations, Resistance, Rebellion and Abolition, Impact on Africa, Caribbean, Americas and Europe, as well as the Legacies in Africa, Caribbean, Americas and Europe. Why is there Slavery Today?

Now, examine slave trade geography, by exploring the Slave Routes. Start with Africa, reading the introduction on the left-hand side. Then click on each highlighted country to browse through key places and artifacts. Continue along the route, visiting Europe, and then the Americas & Caribbean.

Carefully think about each of these geographic areas. In what ways did the Transatlantic Slave Trade affect the indigenous peoples, cultures, and economics? What are some of the legacies—emotional, social, etc.—from slavery that still permeate American society? Discuss with classmates your viewpoints about how slavery impacts today's cultures.

If you have time, check out The Abolition of British Slavery. Click to launch the map and follow each of the guided trails. For each event, read the text, examine the image, and listen to the audio artifacts (transcript also provided).

Slaves in America

At PBS, take a more in-depth look at Slavery and the Making of America. Begin with Time and Place, and trace the key events, from 1619 to 1874. With classmates, compare and contrast the attitudes and functions of slavery before and after the American Revolution and the Civil War.

Next, review some of the Slave Memories, by reading the text and listening to the streaming audio, if possible.

To get an inside view of the Southern aristocracy, visit Slavery in America's What's New section. Scroll down the page, and click Melrose Interactive Slavery Environment. Go through the entire introduction to get a sense of how life at this elite home would have been different from living on a plantation.

In what ways did the structure of the house and acceptable etiquette keep slaves hidden yet ready for on-demand service? How do you think life would have been different for the McMurrans in their grand home without slaves to take care of so many tasks? If you had been a slave for the McMurrans, would you consider rebellion or running? What would be the pros and cons of staying or going?

Again from Slavery in America's What's New page, scroll down further and launch the Roads to Freedom interactive. Here, browse through the six different roads that could lead to a slave's freedom. How do you think slaves felt about how they could or could not be freed? What do you think life was like for a person after he or she had obtained legal freedom? What would you have done? Would it depend on the way you were freed?

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[edit] References

1. ^ Thomas, Hugh.The Slave Trade. Simon and Schuster, 1997.
2. ^ (1998) King Leopold's Ghost: A Story of Greed, Terror, and Heroism in Colonial Africa. Houghton Mifflin Books. ISBN 0618001905.
3. ^ Klein, Herbert S. and Jacob Klein. The Atlantic Slave Trade. Cambridge University Press, 1999. pp. 103-139.
4. ^ BBC Quick guide: The slave trade
5. ^ Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History
6. ^ Migration Simulation
7. ^ Ronald Segal, The Black Diaspora: Five Centuries of the Black Experience Outside Africa (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1995), ISBN 0-374-11396-3, page 4. "It is now estimated that 11,863,000 slaves were shipped across the Atlantic. [Note in original: Paul E. Lovejoy, "The Impact of the Atlantic Slave Trade on Africa: A Review of the Literature," in Journal of African History 30 (1989), p. 368.]"
8. ^ Eltis, David and Richardson, David. The Numbers Game. In: Northrup, David: The Atlantic Slave Trade, 2nd edition, Houghton Mifflin Co., 2002. p. 95.
9. ^ Basil Davidson. The African Slave Trade.
10. ^ Historical survey > Slave societies
11. ^ Adu Boahen, Topics In West African History, p. 110.
12. ^ Kwaku Person-Lynn, Afrikan Involvement In Atlantic Slave Trade.
13. ^ Anstey, Roger: The Atlantic Slave Trade and British abolition, 1760-1810. London: Macmillan, 1975,p.5.
14. ^ Emmer, P.C.: The Dutch in the Atlantic Economy, 1580-1880. Trade, Slavery and Emancipation. Variorum Collected Studies Series CS614, 1998, pp.17.
15. ^ Lovejoy, Paul E.:The Volume of the Atlantic Slave Trade. A Synthesis. In: Northrup, David (ed.): The Atlantic Slave Trade. D.C. Heath and Company 1994.
16. ^ Skeletons Discovered: First African Slaves in New World. January 31, 2006. LiveScience.com. Accessed September 27, 2006.
17. ^ Smallpox Through History
18. ^ Solow, Barbara (ed.). Slavery and the Rise of the Atlantic System, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1991.
19. ^ Elikia M’bokolo, April 2, 1998, The impact of the slave trade on Africa, Le Monde diplomatique[1]
20. ^ The Transatlantic Slave Trade
21. ^ Historical survey > The international slave trade
22. ^ ""Transatlantic Slave Trade"". "Hakim Adi".
23. ^ Lovejoy, Paul E. Transformations in Slavery. Cambridge University Press, 2000
24. ^ Hall, Gwendolyn Midlo: Slavery and African Ethnicities in the Americas: Restoring the Links. The University of North Carolina Press, 2006
25. ^ ^{a b c d e} Meltzer, Milton. Slavery: A World History. Da Capo Press, 1993
26. ^ Stannard, David. American Holocaust. Oxford University Press, 1993
27. ^ Quick guide: The slave trade; Who were the slaves? BBC News
28. ^ Stannard, David. American Holocaust. Oxford University Press, 1993
29. ^ ^{a b c} Gomez, Michael A. Exchanging Our Country Marks. Chapel Hill, 1998
30. ^ Thornton, John. Africa and Africans in the Making of the Atlantic World, 1400-1800 Cambridge University Press, 1998
31. ^ Stride, G.T. and C. Ifeka. Peoples ad Empires of West Africa: West Africa in History 1000-1800. Nelson, 1986
32. ^ (1998) King Leopold's Ghost: A Story of Greed, Terror, and Heroism in Colonial Africa. Houghton Mifflin Books. ISBN 0618001905.
33. ^ African Political Ethics and the Slave Trade
34. ^ Museum Theme: The Kingdom of Dahomey
35. ^ Dahomey (historical kingdom, Africa)
36. ^ Benin seeks forgiveness for role in slave trade
37. ^ Le Mali précolonial
38. ^ The Story of Africa
39. ^ West is master of slave trade guilt
40. ^ African Slave Owners
41. ^ Raymond L. Cohn
42. ^ Cohn, Raymond L. "Deaths of Slaves in the Middle Passage," Journal of Economic History, September 1985.
43. ^ BBC - History - British Slaves on the Barbary Coast
44. ^ HEALTH IN SLAVERY
45. ^ Rawley, James: London, Metropolis of the Slave Trade 2003
46. ^ Anstey, Roger: The Atlantic Slave Trade and British abolition, 1760-1810. London: Macmillan, 1975.
47. ^ Anstey, Roger: The Atlantic Slave Trade and British abolition, 1760-1810. London: Macmillan, 1975.
48. ^ Thomas, Hugh. The Slave Trade. Simon and Schuster, 1997.
49. ^ Daudin 2004
50. ^ Slave Revolt in St. Domingue (Haiti)
51. ^ Digital History
52. ^ UN report
53. ^ [2] How Europe Underdeveloped AfricaWalter RodneyISBN 0950154644
54. ^ Manning, Patrick: Contours of Slavery and Social change in Africa. In: Northrup, David (ed.): The Atlantic Slave Trade. D.C. Heath & Company, 1994, pp.148-160.
55. ^ Basil Davidson, Black mother : Africa and the Atlantic slave trade Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1980.
56. ^ Was slavery the engine of economic growth?
57. ^ Rodney, Walter. How Europe underdeveloped Africa. London: Bogle-L'Ouverture Publications, 1972
58. ^ David Eltis Economic Growth and the Ending of the Transatlantic slave trade
59. ^ Thornton, John. Africa and Africans in the Making of the Atlantic World, 1400-1800. Cambridge University Press, 1992
60. ^ Ideology versus the Tyranny of Paradigm: Historians and the Impact of the Atlantic Slave Trade on African Societies, by Joseph E. Inikori African Economic History. 1994
61. ^ ""African Holocaust: Dark Voyage audio CD"". "Owen 'Alik Shahadah".
62. ^ ""Effects on Africa"". "Ron Karenga".
63. ^ William Wilberforce (1759-1833)
64. ^ The Royal Navy and the Battle to End Slavery. By Huw Lewis-Jones
65. ^ Sailing against slavery. By Jo Loosemore BBC
66. ^ Question of the Month - Jim Crow Museum at Ferris State University
67. ^ Diouf, Sylvianne (2007). Dreams of Africa in Alabama: The Slave Ship Clotilda and the Story of the Last Africans Brought to America. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195311043.
68. ^ The West African Squadron and slave trade
69. ^ Anstey, Roger: The Atlantic Slave Trade and British abolition, 1760-1810. London: Macmillan, 1975.
70. ^ Timeline - What happened after 1807?
71. ^ Chirac names slavery memorial day BBC News
72. ^ Blair 'sorrow' over slave trade. November 27. 2006 BBC. Accessed March 15, 2007.
73. ^ Blair 'sorry' for UK slavery role. March 14 2007 BBC. Accessed March 15, 2007.
74. ^ House Joint Resolution Number 728
75. ^ Alabama Governor Joins Other States in Apologizing For Role in Slavery
76. ^ Livingstone breaks down in tears at slave trade memorial

[edit] Further reading

• Anstey, Roger: The Atlantic Slave Trade and British abolition, 1760-1810. London: Macmillan, 1975.
• Clarke, Dr. John Henrik: Christopher Columbus and the Afrikan Holocaust. Slavery and the Rise of European Capitalism
• Curtin, Philip D: Atlantic Slave Trade. University of Wisconsin Press, 1969.
• Daudin, Guillaume: "Profitability of slave and long distance trading in context : the case of eightheenth century France", Journal of Economic History, 2004.
• Diop, Er. Cheikh Anta: Precolonial Black Africa: A Comparative Study of the Political and Social Systems of Europe and Black Africa
• Doortmont, Michel R.; Jinna Smit (2007). Sources for the mutual history of Ghana and the Netherlands. An annotated guide to the Dutch archives relating to Ghana and West Africa in the Nationaal Archief, 1593-1960s. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-15850-4.
• Drescher, Seymour: From Slavery to Freedom: Comparative Studies in the Rise and Fall of Atlantic Slavery. London: Macmillan Press, 1999.
• Emmer, P.C.: The Dutch in the Atlantic Economy, 1580-1880. Trade, Slavery and Emancipation. Variorum Collected Studies Series CS614, 1998.
• Franklin, John Hope: From Slavery to Freedom
• Gomez, Michael Angelo: Exchanging Our Country Marks (The Transformation of African Identities in the Colonial and AnteBellum South). The University of North Carolina Press, 1998, ISBN 0807846945.
• Hall, Gwendolyn Midlo: Slavery and African Ethnicities in the Americas: Restoring the Links. The University of North Carolina Press, 2006, ISBN 0807829730.
• Horne, Gerald: The Deepest South: The United States, Brazil, and the African Slave Trade. NYU Press, 2007.
• James, E. Wyn: ‘Welsh Ballads and American Slavery’, Welsh Journal of Religious History, 2 (2007), pp.59-86. ISSN 0967-3938.
• Klein, Herbert S. and Jacob Klein. The Atlantic Slave Trade. Cambridge University Press, 1999.
• Meltzer, Milton: Slavery: A World History. Da Capo Press, 1993, ISBN 0306805367.
• Northrup, David: The Atlantic Slave Trade, 2nd edition, Houghton Mifflin Co., 2002.
• Rodney, Walter: How Europe Underdeveloped Africa. Howard University Press; Revised edition, 1981.
• Rodriguez, Junius P., ed. "Encyclopedia of Emancipation and Abolition in the Transatlantic World" (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 2007)
• Solow, Barbara (ed.). Slavery and the Rise of the Atlantic System. Cambridge University Press, 1991.
• Thomas, Hugh: The Slave Trade: The History of the Atlantic Slave Trade 1440 - 1870. London: Picador, 1997.
• Thornton, John: Africa and Africans in the Making of the Atlantic World, 1400-1800. Cambridge University Press, 1998.
• Williams, Chancellor: Destruction of Black Civilization
• Williams, Eric: Capitalism & Slavery. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994 (first published 1944).

[edit] External links